Fm 31 28 Fouo Special Forces Advanced Urban Combat 1 December 1999 Pdf Online

The "FOUO" (For Official Use Only) marking is critical. This manual was not classified (No Secret/TS clearance required), but it was restricted. Why? Section 1-4 of the PDF explicitly states that the "Advanced" techniques regarding covert breaching (lock picking, defeating commercial security systems) and the specific employment of sub-lethal munitions in hostage scenarios were deemed sensitive. Releasing these specifics to the public, the Pentagon reasoned, would allow militias or terrorists to harden their positions against these specific SF techniques.

By late 1999, three factors converged:

Thus, FM 31-28 was drafted as an advanced manual—assuming mastery of basic urban combat—and restricted to FOUO to protect tactical techniques, such as specific breaching methods, rooftop interdiction, and subterranean warfare.

A typical scan of the FM 31-28 FOUO Special Forces Advanced Urban Combat 1 December 1999 Pdf reveals a manual broken into logical, high-impact chapters. Unlike basic training field manuals (FMs), this one assumes the reader is already a proficient combatant. The "FOUO" (For Official Use Only) marking is critical

Here are the core tactical pillars outlined in the document:

FM 31-28, dated 1 December 1999 and marked FOUO (For Official Use Only), is a U.S. Army Special Forces manual that addresses tactics, techniques, and procedures for advanced urban combat operations. It synthesizes lessons from late-20th-century conflicts and anticipates the growing importance of complex urban environments for special operations forces (SOF). Below is a concise, engaging primer that highlights the manual’s structure, key concepts, and enduring relevance.

Prior to 1999, SF relied on general-purpose urban combat manuals such as FM 90-10-1 (1993) An Infantryman’s Guide to Combat in Built-Up Areas. While thorough, these manuals were designed for heavy conventional forces (battalion and above), not for 12-man Operational Detachment-Alphas (ODAs). SF operators in the 1990s—deployed to Somalia (1993), Haiti (1994-95), and the Balkans (1996-99)—improvised urban tactics without a dedicated SF-specific manual. Thus, FM 31-28 was drafted as an advanced

FM 31-28 (FOUO), Special Forces Advanced Urban Combat (1 December 1999), stands as a transitional doctrinal artifact. It captured the U.S. Special Forces community’s realization that the 21st-century battlefield would be increasingly urban, and that conventional infantry manuals were inadequate for 12-man teams operating autonomously. While restricted from public view, its influence is evident in post-9/11 SF urban tactics. The manual’s greatest legacy may be its emphasis on training partner forces in urban combat—a concept that became central to counterinsurgency in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Future research, pending declassification, should compare the 1999 manual with the 1995 draft (if any) and the 2006 revision to trace the evolution of Special Forces urban doctrine across the Global War on Terror.

Military doctrine is fluid and constantly updated. FM 31-28 was part of the older "31-series" field manuals, which covered Special Operations. Military doctrine is fluid and constantly updated

In the years following the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the Global War on Terror, the Army consolidated and reorganized its field manuals. Many specific TTPs found in FM 31-28 were eventually absorbed into broader doctrinal publications, such as ATTP 3-18.11 (Special Forces Unconventional Warfare) or FM 3-06 (Urban Operations). The lessons learned from the manual were extensively updated based on real-world combat experience in Iraq and Afghanistan.

Author: U.S. Department of the Army
Classification: Unclassified (but For Official Use Only / FOUO at the time)
Core Focus: Small-team (ODA) offensive & defensive urban operations